Table 2 Different cell delivery methods for the regeneration of target organs

Scaffolds

• Carrying cells

• Delivery pro-angiogenic factors

• Providing 3D condition

• Having stability

• Timely degradation

• Toxicity

• Immune-modulatory effects

[127,128,129,130]

Stem cell priming or pretreatment

• Improve differentiation rate

• Improve migration and homing rate to target tissue

• Improve cell function

• Cellular senescence

• Critical consideration for cell treatment

[131,132,133,134,135,136]

Exosomes

• Bio-shuttle for pro- and anti-angiogenic factors

• Lack of immune-privileged capacity

• Promotes tumorgenesis

• Needs to isolate and concentrated

[137,138,139,140,141,142]

Magnetic enhancement techniques

• Facilitate the cell retention rate

• Control cells mobilization into target sites

• Track transplanted cells in in vivo

• Provide micro-emboli for cells with small size features

[143,144,145]

Ultrasound techniques

• Enhance delivery of cells to target sites

• Yields cytotoxicity by promoting necrosis or apoptosis

• Tissue damage such as arrhythmias, endothelium malfunction such as capillary leakage

[146,147,148]

Enhanced homing technique

• Enhance proliferating, migrating, and alignment of EPCs to target sites

ND*

[146, 149]

Mannitol-enhanced delivery

• Used for cell delivery through the blood-brain barrier

• Being selective for distinct cells and factors

[48, 150,151,152]