Table 2 Brain ECM stiffness in Alzheimer’s disease subjects in comparison with healthy condition

MRE

↓

8 wild-type mice (17.5–23-month-old) and 5 transgenic APP-PS1 (AD) mice (20.5-month-old)

◾ Wild-type mice: 25.0 ± 6.4 kPa

◾ AD mice: 19.3 ± 3.3 kPa

% difference: -22.80%

(p = 0.0031)

[42]

MRE

↓

39 wild-type mice (6-week-old) and 45 transgenic APP23 (AD) mice (6-week-old)

Hippocampal region:

◾ Controls mice: 7.75 ± 0.3 kPa

◾ APP23 mice: 7.01 ± 0.52 kPa

% difference: -9.55%

[43]

MRE

↓

28 human patients:

◾ 7 with probable AD

◾ 14 PIB-negative cognitively normal controls (CN-)

◾ 7 PIB-positive cognitively normal controls (CN +)

◾ CN- group: 2.37 kPa

◾ CN + group: 2.32 kPa

◾ AD group: 2.20 kPa

(p = 0.0055)

% difference: -7.17% (AD and CN-) and -5.17% (AD and CN +)

[44]

MRE

↓

48 human patients:

◾ 16 amyloid-negative cognitively normal controls (CN-)

◾ 16 amyloid-positive cognitively normal controls (CN +)

◾ 8 amyloid-positive subjects with mild cognitive impairment

◾ 8 amyloid-positive subjects with probable AD

◾ CN group: 2.51 ± 0.09 kPa

◾ AD group: 2.40 ± 0.09 kPa

% difference: -4.38%

[45]

MRE

↓

84 human patients:

◾ 20 normal pressure hydrocephalus patients (60–86 years old)

◾ 8 AD patients (78–87 years old)

◾ dementia with Lewy bodies patients (63–76 years old)

◾ frontotemporal dementia patients (54–65 years old)

◾ 46 cognitively normal controls (56–89 years old)

A mean of -0.009 ± 0.001 kPa/year

[46]

MRE

↓

23 human patients:

11 AD patients (mean age: 76.8) and 12 healthy controls (mean age: 69.4)

Cerebrum:

◾ healthy controls: 2.50 ± 0.05 kPa

◾ AD patients: 2.25 ± 0.05 kPa

% difference: -10%

(p = 0.004)

[47]

MRE

↓

42 human patients:

21 AD patients and 21 healthy controls (mean age 75 years)

Hippocampus:

■ healthy controls: 1.076 ± 0.190 kPa

■ AD patients: 0.863 ± 0.147 kPa

% difference: -19.80%

(p < 0.001)

[48]

Indentation

↓

Post-mortem brain tissue from frontal lobes of 10 subjects:

◾ 5 AD patients

◾ 5 normal controls

-23.5% (gray matter) and -27.9% (white matter) (p < 0.0001)

[49]

AFM

↓

16 transgenic B6C3-Tg (AD) mice and 27 wild-type littermates

◾ Wild-type littermates: 0.651 ± 0.138 kPa

◾ AD mice: 0.402 ± 0.097 kPa

% difference: -38.25%

[50]