Table 1 Traditional method conditions

Freezing rate and temperature

It influences mechanical stress, pores size, and sharp edges

12 h, room temperature until -80° C

[11, 12]

Cycles (time and length)

It affects thermal stability and crystallinity degree

Between 3 and 10

[34,35,36]

Thawing rate and temperature

It impacts three-dimensional network stability

-80 °C to 4 °C, in 20 min

[31]

Medium

It determines suitable physicochemical properties

Water, ethanol, methanol, DMSO, acetone

[10, 37]

Solute concentration

It exerts a direct influence on the rate of transition phases

Saturated solution

[25, 38]

Additives

They provide structure stabilization

Polysaccharides, polyols, and proteins

[39, 40]

Solute nature

It influences mechanical properties and chemical functionality

Polymers, oils, proteins, and nanoparticles

[16, 22]

pH changes

It affects swelling and mechanical properties

non-ionic

[30, 38, 41]