Fig. 3

An osteochondral defect was generated in the rabbit knee patellofemoral groove surface. The photo of the xenogeneic tissue-engineered bilayer osteochondral graft (a). The steps involved in the implantation procedure are as follows: the Vernier caliper was used to measure the perforation position after bone opening (b), creating an osteochondral defect 4.0 mm in diameter and 3.5 mm in height (c). The bilayer osteochondral graft comprising the 3D-printed bioceramic scaffold with/without human adipose-derived stem cells laden with biohydrogel was implanted in rabbits (d)