Table 1 Various invitro models of bone metastasis of breast cancer

Multicellular tumor spheroids

Simple, long-term culture, coculture, patient specific

Low throughput, high shear force, necrotic cells in the center of the cellular sphere, simple architecture

Organotypic multicellular spheroids

Preserve original tumor tissue's cellular interactions and body's physiological environment

More expensive, complicated, and time-consuming

Organoids

Biologically stable, high- throughput, simultaneously simulate the structure and function of healthy and tumor tissues, patient specific

Lacke vascularization and immune system complexity

3D hydrogels or scaffolds models

Simulate TME mechanical, structural, chemical, and physical signals, cells can migrate in three dimensions and interact with other cells, high-throughput screening, reasonable cost

Lack of accurate position of cells, vascular structures, and un-uniform distribution of cells

Bioreactor-based models

Adjustable and controllable, stimuli mechanical signals, cell–cell, and cell-ECM interactions

High space and cost for dynamic cell culture

Microcarrier-based models

Enhance cellular activity, improves drug resistance, Stimulates cell–cell and cell-ECM interactions

Simple structure, low vascular potential

Bioprinting

Automatic and accurate control of cell distribution, large-scale structures, high-efficiency, reproducibility, integration of permeable vascular networks, complex architecture, Custom made architecture, co culture

Expensive, difficult to be adopted to high-throughput screening

Metastasis-on-a-chip systems

Invivo-like structure, chemical gradient, and precise spatio-temporal control of TME

Expensive, difficult to be adopted to high-throughput screening

2D models

Simple and low cost

Few cell–cell and cell-ECM interaction, do not reproduce cellular complexity